Accounting Standard 3 -CASH FLOW STATEMENT

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AS – 3

CASH  FLOW  STATEMENT

Definitions:

Cash comprises cash on hand and cash at bank. (Demand Deposits with bank)

Cash Equivalents are

v  Short Term

v  Highly Liquid Investments (Maturity around 3 months)

v  Subject to insignificant risk of changes in value.

Cash Flows are inflows and outflows of cash and cash equivalents.

Cash Flow Statement represents the cash flows during the specified period by operating, investing and financing activities.

Operating Activities are the principal revenue-producing activities of the enterprise and other activities that are not investing activities and financing activities.

Example:

1] Cash receipts from sales of goods/services

2] Cash receipts from royalties, fees and other revenue items

3] Cash payments for salaries, wages and rent

4] Cash payment to suppliers for goods

5] Cash payments or refunds of Income Tax unless they can be specifically identified with financing            or investing activities

6] Cash receipts and payments to future contracts, forward contracts when the contracts are held for trading purposes.

Cash from operating activities can be disclosed either by DIRECT METHOD OR BY INDIRECT METHOD.

Investing Activities are the acquisition and disposal of long-term assets and other investments not included in cash equivalents.

Example:

1] Cash payments/receipts to acquire/sale of fixed assets including intangible assets

2] Cash payments to acquire shares or interest in joint ventures (other than the cases where instruments are considered as cash equivalents)

3] Cash advances and loans made to third parties (Loan sanctioned by a financial enterprise is operating activity)

4] Dividends and Interest received

5] Cash flows from acquisitions and disposal of subsidiaries

Financing Activities are activities that result in changes in the size and composition of the owners’ capital (including preference share capital in the case of a company) and borrowing of the enterprise.

Example:

1] Cash proceeds from issue of shares and debentures

2] Buy back of shares

3] Redemption of Preference shares or debentures

4] Cash repayments of amount borrowed.

5] Dividend and Interest paid

An enterprise should report separately major classes of gross cash receipts and gross cash payments arising from investing and financing activities.

However, cash flows from following activities may be reported on a net basis.

v  Cash receipts and payments on behalf of customers

               For example: Cash collected on behalf of, and paid over to, the owners of properties.

v  Cash flows from items in which turnover is quick, the amounts are large and the maturities are short.

               For example: Purchase and sale of investments

v  For financial enterprise: Cash receipts and payments for the acceptance and repayment of deposits with a fixed maturity date.

v  For financial enterprise: Deposits placed/withdrawn from other financial enterprises

v  For financial enterprise: Cash advances and loans made to customers and the repayment of those advances and loans.

Foreign Currency Cash Flows:

Cash flows arising in foreign currency should be recorded in enterprise’ reporting currency applying the exchange conversion rate existing on the date of cash flow.

The effect of changes in exchange rates of cash and cash equivalents held in foreign currency should be reported as separate part of the reconciliation of the changes in cash and cash equivalents during the period.

Extraordinary Items: These items should be separately shown under respective heads of cash from operating, investing and financing activities.

Investing and financing transactions that do not require the use of cash and cash equivalents should be excluded from a cash flow statement. For Example

A] The conversion of debt to equity

B] Acquisition of an enterprise by means of issue of shares

Other Disclosure:

Components of cash and cash equivalents.

Reconciliation of closing cash and cash equivalents with items of balance sheet.

The amount of significant cash and cash equivalent balances held by the enterprise, which are not available for use by it.

Accounting Standards – 2 VALUATION OF INVENTORY

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AS – 2

VALUATION OF INVENTORY

Inventories are assets:

held for sale in ordinary course of business;

in the process of production fro such sale (WIP);

in the form of materials or supplies to be consumed in the production process or in the rendering of services.

However, this standard does not apply to the valuation of following inventories:

(a)    WIP arising under construction contract (Refer AS – 7);

(b)   WIP arising in the ordinary course of business of service providers;

(c)    Shares, debentures and other financial instruments held as stock in trade; and

(d)   Producers’ inventories of livestock, agricultural and forest products, and mineral oils, ores and gases to the extent that they are measured at net realizable value in accordance with well established practices in those industries.

Inventories should be valued at the lower of cost and net realizable value.

The cost of inventories should comprise

(a)    all costs of purchase

(b)   costs of conversion

(c)    other costs incurred in bringing the inventories to their present location and condition.

The costs of purchase  consist of

(a)    the purchase price

(b)   duties and taxes ( other than those subsequently recoverable by the enterprise from the taxing authorities like CENVAT credit)

(c)    freight inwards and other expenditure directly attributable to the acquisition.

Trade discounts (but not cash discounts), rebates, duty drawbacks and other similar items are deducted in determining the costs of purchase.

The costs of conversion include direct costs and systematic allocation of fixed and variable production overhead.

Allocation of fixed overheads is based on the normal capacity of the production facilities. Normal capacity is the production, expected to be achieved on an average over a number of periods or seasons under normal circumstances, taking into account the loss of capacity resulting from planned maintenance.

Under Recovery: Unallocated overheads are recognized as an expense in the period in which they are incurred.

                              Example: Normal capacity = 20000 units

                                              Production          = 18000 units

                                              Sales                    = 16000 units

                                              Closing Stock      = 2000   units              

                                              Fixed Overheads = Rs. 60000    

                              Then,  Recovery rate = Rs60000/20000 = Rs 3 per unit

                               Fixed Overheads will be bifurcated into three parts:

                               Cost of sales                  : 16000*3 = 48000

                               Closing stock                 : 2000 *3 =   6000                                   

                               Under recovery              :               Rs 6000  ( to be charged to P/L)

(Apparently it seems that fixed cost element in closing stock should be 60000/18000*2000 =Rs 6666.67. but this is wrong as per AS-2)        

 

Over Recovery: In period of high production, the amount of fixed production overheads is allocated to each unit of production is decreased so that inventories.

                           Example: Normal capacity = 20000 units

                                           Production          = 25000 units

                                           Sales                    = 23000 units

                                           Closing Stock      = 2000   units

                                           Fixed Overheads =  Rs 60000

                          

                           Recovery Rate = Rs 60000/20000 = Rs 3 per unit

                           But, Revised  Recovery rate = Rs 60000/25000  =  Rs. 2.40 per unit

                           Cost of sales                         : 23000*2.4 =  Rs 55200

                           Closing Stock                       : 2000  *2.4 =  Rs.  4800

Joint or by products:

In case of joint or by products, the costs incurred up to the stage of split off should be allocated on a rational and consistent basis. The basis of allocation may be sale value at split off point or sale value at the completion of production. In case of the by products of negligible value or wastes, valuation may be taken at net realizable value. The cost of main product is then joint cost minus net realizable value of by product or waste.

The other costs are also included in the cost of inventory to the extent they contribute in bringing the inventory to its present location and condition.

Interest and other borrowing costs are usually not included in cost of inventory. However, AS-16 recommends the areas where borrowing costs are taken as cost of inventory.

Certain costs are strictly not taken as cost of inventory.

(a)    Abnormal amounts of wasted materials, labour, or other production costs;

(b)   Storage costs, unless those costs are necessary in the production process prior to a further production stage;

(c)    Administrative overheads that do not contribute to bringing the inventories to their present location and condition; and

(d)   Selling and Distribution costs.

Cost Formula:

ð  Specific identification method for determining cost of inventories

Specific identification method means directly linking the cost with specific item of inventories. This method has application in following conditions:

·         In case of purchase of item specifically segregated for specific project and is not ordinarily interchangeable.

·         In case of goods of services produced and segregated for specific project.

ð  Where Specific Identification method is not applicable

The cost of inventories is valued by the following methods;                  

FIFO ( First In First Out) Method

Weighted Average Cost

Cost of inventories in certain conditions:

The following methods may be used for convenience if the results approximate actual cost.

ð  Standard Cost: It takes into account normal level of consumption of material and supplies, labour, efficiency and capacity utilization. It must be regularly reviewed taking into consideration the current condition.

ð  Retail Method: Normally applicable for retail trade

                                            Cost of inventory is determined by reducing the gross margin from the sale

                                            value of inventory.

Net Realisable Value means the estimated selling price in ordinary course of business, at the time of valuation, less estimated cost of completion and estimated cost necessary to make the sale.

Comparison between net realizable value and cost of inventory

The comparison between cost and net realizable value should be made on item-by-item basis. (In some cases, group of items-by-group of item basis)

For Example:

                                       Cost                 NRV               Inventory Value as per AS-2

Item A                            100                  90                    90

Item B                            100                  115                  100

Total                               200                  205                  200 190

Raw material valuation

If the finished goods to which raw material is applied, is sold at profit, RAW MATERIAL is valued at cost irrespective of its NRV level being lower to its costs.

Accounting Standard -1Disclosure Of Acounting Policy

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AS-1-Disclosure Of Acounting Policy

          Accounting policies are the specific accounting principles and the methods of applying those principles adopted by an enterprise in the preparation and presentation of financial statements.

1. All significant accounting policies should be disclosed.
2. Such disclosure form part of financial statements.
3. All disclosures should be made at one place.
4. Specific disclosure for the adoption of fundamental accounting assumptions is not required.
5.  Disclosure of accounting policies cannot remedy a wrong or inappropriate treatment of the item in the accounts.

        Any change in accounting policies which has a material effect in the current period or which is reasonably expected to have material effect in later periods should be disclosed.

      In the case of a change in accounting policies, which has a material effect in the current period, the amount by which any item in the financial statements is affected by such change should also be disclosed to the extent ascertainable. Where such amount is not ascertainable, the fact should be indicated.

Fundamental Accounting Assumption: (GCA) :

1. Going Concern
2. Consistency
3. Accrual

Major considerations governing the selection of accounting policies:

• Prudence
• Substance over form (Logic over Law)
• Materiality

The following are examples of the areas in which different accounting policies may be adopted by different enterprises:

-                                  Methods of depreciation

-                                  Methods of translation of foreign currency

-                                  Valuation of inventories

-                                  Valuation of investments

-                                  Treatment of retirement benefits

-                                  Treatment of contingent liabilities etc.

Accounting Standards(AS) - An Introduction

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         Today iam going to share the Accounting Standards, that are the guidelines to the any business to prepare and maintain accounts of their respective companies. For comfortable usage we can say Accounting Standards as (AS) from next post.

      Accounting Standards are the defined accounting policies issued by Government or expert institute. These standards are issued to bring harmonization in follow up of accounting policies.

Presently, Institute of Chartered Accountants of India has issued 29 Accounting Standards as listed below.

 

AS 1.        Disclosure of Accounting Policies

AS 2.        Valuation of Inventories

AS 3.        Cash Flow Statements

AS 4.        Contingencies and Events Occurring After the Balance Sheet Date

AS 5.        Net Profit or Loss for the Period, Prior Period Items and Changes in 
                 Accounting Policies

AS 6.        Depreciation Accounting

AS 7.        Construction Contracts

AS 8.        Accounting for Research and Development (Not Applicable now)

AS 9.        Revenue Recognition

AS 10.      Accounting for Fixed Assets

AS 11.      Accounting for the Effects of Changes in Foreign Exchange Rates

AS 12.      Accounting for Government Grants

AS 13.      Accounting for Investments

AS 14.      Accounting for Amalgamation

AS 15.      Accounting for Retirement Benefits in the financial Statements of Employers

AS 16.      Borrowing Costs

AS 17.      Segment Reporting

AS 18.      Related Party Disclosure

AS 19.      Leases

AS 20.      Earning Per Share

AS 21.      Consolidated Financial Statements

AS 22.      Accounting for Taxes on Income

AS 23.      Accounting for Investments in Associates in Consolidated Financial Statements

AS 24.      Discontinuing Operations

AS 25.      Interim Financial Reporting

AS 26.      Intangible Assets

AS 27.      Financial Reporting of Interests in Joint Ventures

AS 28.      Impairment of Assets

AS 29.      Provisions, Contingent Liabilities & Contingent Assets

Procedure for Issuing Accounting Standards

        Accounting Standard Board (ASB) determines the broad areas in which Accounting Standards need to be formulated.

In the preparation of AS, ASB is assisted by Study Groups.

      ASB also holds discussions with representative of Government, Public Sector Undertakings, Industry and other organizations (ICSI/ICWAI) for ascertaining their views.

        An exposure draft of the proposed standard is prepared and issued for comments by members of ICAI and the public at large.

      After taking into consideration the comments received, the draft of the proposed standard will be finalized by ASB and submitted to the council of the Institute.

       The council of the Institute will consider the final draft of the proposed Standard and If found necessary, modify the same in consultation with ASB. The AS on the relevant subject will then be issued under the authority of the council.
NOTE: Hi Guys, Iam going to explain all the above Accounting Standards one by one in forthcomming posts, Thank You

 

Bearer securities

Bearer securities

         Bearer securities are completely negotiable and entitle the holder to the rights under the security (e.g. to payment if it is a debt security, and voting if it is an equity security). They are transferred by delivering the instrument from person to person. In some cases, transfer is by endorsement, or signing the back of the instrument, and delivery.

         Regulatory and fiscal authorities sometimes regard bearer securities negatively, as they may be used to facilitate the evasion of regulatory restrictions and tax. In the United Kingdom, for example, the issue of bearer securities was heavily restricted firstly by the Exchange Control Act 1947 until 1953. Bearer securities are very rare in the United States because of the negative tax implications they may have to the issuer and holder.

        A bond or share that is considered to be owned by the person who has it in their possession, rather than by a named person.

Bonds may be registered or they may be issued in the form of bearer securities.

Arbitration Definition

Arbitration Definition

            If a client and a broker have a disagreement they are not able to settle amicably, they can take the case to Arbitration. The process is started when a client files a statement of claim using a form provided on the FINRA website. It details the circumstances surrounding the dispute and what type of monetary award the client is hoping to obtain. 

       If the disputed dollar amount is under $25,000, it is resolved through written statements. For amounts over $25,000, in-person Arbitration is used. This requires the selection of a venue and the formation of an arbitration panel. 

          The claimant signs the "uniform submission agreement" stating they will abide by the panel's decision and they pay filing and hearing fees.

Arbitrability:

By their nature, the subject matter of some disputes is not capable of arbitration. In general, two groups of legal procedures cannot be subjected to arbitration:

• Procedures which necessarily lead to a determination which the parties to the dispute may not enter into an agreement upon:Some court procedures lead to judgments which bind all members of the general public, or public authorities in their capacity as such, or third parties, or which are being conducted in the public interest. For example, until the 1980s, antitrust matters were not arbitrable in the United States. Matters relating to crimes, status and family law are generally not considered to be arbitrable, as the power of the parties to enter into an agreement upon these matters is at least restricted. 
• However, most other disputes that involve private rights between two parties can be resolved using arbitration. In some disputes, parts of claims may be arbitrable and other parts not. For example, in a dispute over patent infringement, a determination of whether a patent has been infringed could be adjudicated upon by an arbitration tribunal, but the validity of a patent could not: As patents are subject to a system of public registration, an arbitral panel would have no power to order the relevant body to rectify any patent registration based upon its determination.
• Some legal orders exclude or restrict the possibility of arbitration for reasons of the protection of weaker members of the public, e.g. consumers. 
• Examples: German law excludes disputes over the rental of living space from any form of arbitration, while arbitration agreements with consumers are only considered valid if they are signed by either party, and if the signed document does not bear any other content than the arbitration agreement.

Averaging Meaning

Averaging

Averaging Up Definition

          Averaging Up is an investment strategy in which additional amounts are invested in an asset as its price rises. This will raise the average price paid for all of the shares, but that average cost is still lower than the security's current market price. The profit is the difference between the average cost and the current price and protecting it necessitates selling while the stock is rising or shortly after it has peaked.

Averaging Down Definition

          Averaging Down is an investment strategy in which additional amounts are invested in an asset if there is a substantial drop in its price after the original investment is made. This course of action is used by investors who plan to hold the assets for an extended period of time, have long-term investment goals and typically invest against the current investment trend.

American Depository Share (ADS)

American Depository Share (ADS)

        An American Depositary Share ("ADS") is a U.S. dollar denominated form of equity ownership in a non-U.S. company. It represents the foreign shares of the company held on deposit by a custodian bank in the company¹s home country and carries the corporate and economic rights of the foreign shares, subject to the terms specified on the ADR certificate.

      An American Depositary Receipt ("ADR") is a physical certificate evidencing ownership in one or several ADSs. The terms ADR and ADS are often used interchangeably.

Convenient way to invest internationally

       ADRs provide U.S. investors with a convenient way to invest in non-U.S. securities without having to worry about the complex details of cross-border transactions; they offer the same economic benefits enjoyed by the domestic shareholders of the non-U.S. company. ADRs are issued by a U.S. bank, such as J.P. Morgan, that functions as a depositary. Each ADR is backed by a specific number or fraction of shares in the non-U.S. company. The relationship between the number of ADRs and the number for foreign shares is typically referred to as the ADR ratio.

Listed and traded in the U.S.

        ADRs can be listed on any of the U.S. exchanges, such as the New York Stock Exchange (NYSE) and the American Stock Exchange (AMEX), and may be quoted for trading on the National Association of Securities Dealers Automated Quotation System (Nasdaq), the NASD's over-the-counter market, or the pink sheets. They can also be privately placed and traded as Rule 144A securities. Finally, the concept of the ADR has been extended to other geographical markets, resulting in structures known as global depositary receipts (GDRs), international depositary receipts (IDRs), and European depositary receipts (EDRs), which are generally traded or listed in one or more international markets.

Currency risk

      Although ADRs are U.S. dollar denominated securities and pay dividends in U.S. dollars, they do not eliminate the currency risk associated with an investment in a non-U.S. company.